Reading Room - The Scientific Story of Creation by Adrian Bjornson of Addison Press

The Scientific Story of Creation

Dedication and acknowledgements	v
Foreword	vii
Preface	xiv
1. Introduction	1
The eternal questions of creation	1
The Hubble expansion of the universe	2
Searching for answers	2
The evolution of life on earth	4
Our sun and our Milky Way galaxy	4
The mystery of cosmology	4
Serious questions concerning the Big Bang theory	5
Alternate explanations for the Hubble expansion	6
The Hubble expansion is apparent	6
The Steady State Universe theory	7
The singularity concept	9
The Einstein General theory of Relativity	9
The Yilmaz refinement of the Einstein theory	10
Einstein's rejection of the singularity concept	11
The Yilmaz cosmology model	12
The genius of Albert Einstein	13
Our scientific story of creation	13
2. The creation of life on earth	14
Early life	14
The first animals	15
Development of fishes	17
Amphibians invade the land	18
Spread of plants over the land	19
The reign of the reptiles	21
The Synapsids	22
The Dinosaurs	23
The slow rise of the mammals	24
The ascent of humans	25
Australopithecus and the Homo genus	25
Hunting capabilities of early man	26
From Homo Erectus to anatomically modern humans	27
The development of sophisticated language	28
How the Homo genus evolved	30
Was there a divine spark in the development of humanity?	32
The growth of civilization	32
Beyond the earth	33
3. The creation of our stars	34
Our Milky Way galaxy	34
Enormous distances to the stars	36
The search for intelligent extraterrestrial life	39
The birth of our sun and our earth	40
The life and death of our sun and similar stars	43
Contraction to a white dwarf	44
Life cycles of other stars	45
The meaning of absolute magnitude	46
Our search for stars with intelligent life	47
The supernova	50
The neutron star	50
The pulsar	52
The black hole	52
Radiation from an ideal blackbody	56
4. The creation of our universe	59
The view of our universe in 1900	59
The local group	60
The Hubble expansion of our universe	60
Concept of the Hubble expansion	60
The apparent age of the universe	62
Measurement of galaxy distance	63
Measurement of parallax	63
The Cepheid variable stars	64
How Edwin Hubble measured the galaxy distances	64
Modern measurements of the Hubble constant	65
The Big Bang concept	66
Material contained in our universe	66
The neutron star model of universe creation	68
George Gamow, the father of the Big Bang	70
The singularity model of universe creation	72
Cosmic microwave background radiation	76
The Quasar	79
The discovery of the quasar	79
Quasar observations of Halton Arp	80
Implications of gravitational theory	82
5. Newton's theory of gravity	83
Development of Newton's theory	83
The Heliocentric theory of Copernicus	84
Galileo and his telescope	85
The Kepler laws of planetary orbits	86
Galileo's measurements of falling bodies	87
Calculation of the acceleration of gravity	89
The orbits of planets around the sun	90
Orbit of the moon around the earth	93
Engineering use of Newton's laws	93
Why are astronauts weightless?	94
How Cavendish weighed the earth	95
Coordinates to specify a vector	96
6. The nature of light	100
What is a light wave?	100
Mechanical waves	100
Electromagnetic waves	101
Meaning of electric and magnetic fields	102
Principle of an electromagnetic wave	103
Early concepts of light	104
Galileo and Kepler	104
The optical discoveries of Isaac Newton	105
The wave property of light	108
The electromagnetic wave concept	112
Search for the velocity of the luminiferous aether	113
The Michelson-Morley Experiment	115
The contraction hypothesis	116
The Lorentz transformation	116
The Einstein Relativity principle	117
Reaction to the Einstein Relativity principle	118
7. Einstein Special theory of Relativity	119
Measuring the speed of sound	119
Measuring the speed of light	120
The Einstein theory of Relativity	122
The principles of Relativity	123
Explanation of constancy of the speed of light	124
Replacing the observer by a set of coordinates	125
Four dimensionality of space and time	126
Variation of mass of an object	126
Converting matter into energy	128
The principle of covariance	129
8. The Einstein theory of gravity	131
Generalizing the Relativity principle	131
Applying the equivalence principle	134
Equivalence between acceleration and gravity	134
Redshift produced by gravity	135
Effect of gravity on clock rate	136
Other effects due to gravity and acceleration	137
Application of tensor analysis to General Relativity	137
The metric tensor	138
Converting form of a tensor	140
The Ricci and Einstein curvature tensors	140
The energy-momentum tensor	141
The Einstein gravitational field equation	141
Outline of Einstein theory calculations	141
The Schwartzschild solution	143
Computer solutions of the Einstein theory	145
9. The Yilmaz theory of gravity	146
Derivation of the Yilmaz solution	146
The elements of the metric tensor	146
The Yilmaz gravitational field equation	147
The general time-varying Yilmaz theory	148
Discussion of the Yilmaz theory	148
Reason for opposition to the Yilmaz theory	150
Consistency with quantum mechanics	150
10. Applying the Einstein and Yilmaz theories	151
Relativistic effects produced by gravity	151
The normalized relativistic mass m	152
Effect of gravity on the speed of light	153
The black hole	154
Second limit to the Schwartzschild solution	156
Gravitational effect on distance and clock rate	157
Effect of gravitational field on wavelength	158
The quasar redshift	159
11. The quasar	160
Summary of quasar characteristics	160
Quasar observations of Halton Arp	161
Statistical evidence given by Halton Arp	162
Principle for calculating probabilities	164
How much power does a quasar radiate?	165
Diameters of the associated galaxies	165
Galaxies with intrinsic redshift	166
Possible explanations for intrinsic redshift	166
Intrinsic redshift of quasar 3C48	166
The implications of forbidden spectral lines	167
Explanations for intrinsic quasar redshifts	168
Confusion in quasar research	168
12. Evidence against the Big Bang	169
The editorial of Geoffrey Burbidge	169
Eric Lerner and Nobel Laureate Hannes Alfven	170
The Big Bang age dilemma	171
Mythological philosophy of Big Bang research	172
Effect of the computer on cosmological studies	175
Quasar studies by astronomer Halton Arp	177
Lack of scientific objectivity in astronomy today	178
Cosmic microwave radiation	179
13. Weaknesses of the Einstein theory	180
Does not achieve a two-body solution	180
Professor Carroll O. Alley	180
The single-body Schwartzschild solution	181
The analysis of Professor Alley	182
Reason for failure to achieve a two-body solution	182
The Einstein, Ricci, and Energy-Momentum Tensors	183
The Riemann tensor	183
Conservation of matter-plus-energy	184
Multiple solutions for the Einstein theory	185
The Einstein theory is not rigorous	185
Variation of speed of light with direction	186
14. The Yilmaz cosmology model	187
Description of Yilmaz cosmology model	188
Reduction of speed of light, clock rate, and spatial dimensions	188
The Hubble expansion of the universe	191
How can gravity make the universe expand?	194
Creation of matter	195
Cosmic microwave background radiation	196
Uniqueness of cosmology model predictions	196
15. A believable picture of our universe	197
Viable models of our universe	197
The implications of the Yilmaz cosmology model	198
Matter derived from gravitational waves	199
The local expansion of the universe	200
The second law of thermodynamics	200
The contents of the universe	203
The "observable" Yilmaz universe	203
Is the universe infinite?	204
Religious and philosophical implications of picture of the universe	205
The Biblical story of Creation	205
Our picture of the universe	206
16. The Genius of Albert Einstein	207
Einstein's discovery of Relativity	207
The basic Relativity principle	207
Generalizing the Relativity principle	208
The Yilmaz refinement of the Einstein theory	209
Other achievements of Albert Einstein	210
Einstein's search for a unified field theory	211
Appendices	212
A. The Marmet redshift effect	213
B. Analysis of quasar 3C48	215
Analysis by Greenstein and Schmidt	215
Basic analysis	215
Rapid variation of quasar brightness	218
Other data on quasar 3C48	218
C. Details of Yilmaz cosmology model	220
Cosmic microwave background radiation	220
Density of matter in the universe	224
D. The meaning of a tensor	226
Tensor to specify stress within a body	226
Tensors in relativity theory	229
E.Relativity analyses	230
Formulas for Schwartzschild and Yilmaz solutions	230
The meaning of relativistic gravitational potential	231
Derivation of Yilmaz theory	233
Relativistic Doppler shift	236
Einstein pseudo-tensor for the gravitational field	237
Conservation of matter-plus-energy	238
Einstein's rejection of the "Big Bang" singularity	239
Glossary	240
Bibliography	244
Index	248-254

We begin our story of Creation by studying the evolution of life on earth. Our earth was created 4.6 billion years ago. One billion years later the first definite signs of life appeared in the form of cyanobacteria, which are microscopic cells that implement photosynthesis. It took about 2 billion more years before seaweed appeared, and another billion years before animal life emerged in our oceans, 600 million years ago.

We will trace the evolution of vertebrates, from simple chordates to modern mammals, which culminated in the creation of humans. Although anatomically modem humans have existed for 100 thousand years, modern human behavior began suddenly, 40 thousand years ago, when humans started acting in a radically new manner.

Next we raise our eyes to the heavens to see how the stars were created, including our sun. Gas and dust coalesced to form our sun, in which nuclear fusion was ignited 5 billion years ago. "Let there be Light, and there was Light." A disk of gas and dust surrounded the sun and produced our solar system. This disk seems to have been essential in the formation of our sun, and so the creation of a solar system around a star is probably a normal development. Hence there should be many stars with planets that are similar to our earth. We will examine the possibility that nearby stars have planets that contain advanced life.

We will see how our sun and other stars will grow old and eventually die. Most stars end their lives quietly, but very large stars die in an enormous explosion called a supernova. The violent supernova leaves behind an extremely dense body called a neutron star.

We will examine our Milky Way galaxy, with its 100 billion stars, and then we will look to our enormous universe that lies beyond, with its billions of galaxies. In 1929, astronomer Edwin Hubble discovered that our universe seems to be flying apart. It appears to have emerged from a single point in a tremendous explosion billions of years ago. This leads to the ultimate mystery, "How was our universe created?"

The Gamow Big Bang Concept

George Gamow was a noted physicist who worked on the Manhattan atomic bomb project. In the decade after World War II, Gamow publicized the concept that our universe began as a highly dense mass that exploded with a Big Bang. According to recent astronomical data, this explosion would have occurred about 15 billion years ago. Gamow proposed that our universe was initially compressed to the density of a neutron star, which he considered to have the greatest density of matter that is physically possible. A neutron star consists entirely of tightly packed neutrons and weighs 300 million tons per cubic centimeter.

As defined by the Big Bang theory, the observable universe has a radius of 15 billion light years. If this observable universe were compressed to the density of water, it would be 3 light years in diameter. If it were then compressed further to the density of a neutron star, it would just fit within the orbit of the planet Mars. According to the Gamow Big Bang theory, this was the size of the observable universe at the instant of the Big Bang.

Since the time that computers became widely available in the mid 1960's, hundreds of scientists have devoted their careers to computer studies using the extremely complicated equations of the Einstein General theory of Relativity. Because of the great awe of Einstein, this research has been very rewarding professionally. Cosmology is the only area to which these computer studies can be applied, and so this has led to an enormous research effort on the Big Bang theory.

Computer studies of the Einstein theory have predicted that our universe began as a "singularity" at the instant of the Big Bang. Ideally a singularity is a body squeezed to zero size with infinite mass density. However, it is usually interpreted to mean an extremely compact body that has an enormous density of matter.

The January 2001 issue of Scientific 4merican (p. 37) acclaimed astrophysicist P. James E. Peebles to be the 'father of modern cosmology". In the October 1994 Scientific American (P. 53), an article by Peebles and others described the Big Bang theory and claimed that the observable universe was initially "concentrated in a region smaller than a dime" at the instant of the Big Bang.

The Big Bang theory underwent a radical change when it evolved from the Gamow Big Bang theory to the modem Big Bang theory with its singularity postulate. In this change the initial universe was squeezed from the size of the Mars orbit to the size of a dime. What scientific evidence is given to support this magical compression of matter? The prediction is based solely on computer studies of the Einstein General theory of Relativity.

The concept that the Einstein theory predicts a singularity was first proposed in a 1939 paper, which claimed that a star with sufficient density to form what was later called a black hole would contract "indefinitely". The star would shrink to become a "singularity" having an infinite density of matter. Einstein absolutely rejected the black-hole singularity; he insisted that, "singularities do not exist in physical reality". After that rebuttal by Einstein, no scientist claimed that General Relativity predicted a singularity while Einstein was alive.

Skepticism Concerning the Big Bang

For many years most astronomers have been informing the public with complete confidence that our universe was created with a Big Bang about 15 billion years ago. However, cosmologists are continually inventing artificial postulates to explain the many conflicts of the Big Bang theory with physical evidence. The following comment in the August 2001 Scientific American (p. 14) shows that there is growing skepticism about the validity of Big Bang research:

"Whenever Scientific American runs an article on cosmology, we get letters complaining that cosmology isn't a science, just unconstrained speculation ".

Understanding the Einstein Theory

To investigate cosmology, we must understand the Einstein General theory of Relativity. This book describes the Einstein theory in a simple physical manner that can be readily comprehended by the average reader.

The principles that Einstein established in developing his General theory of Relativity were very sound. However, Einstein derived the tensor formula that specifies his theory in an intuitive manner. That tensor formula has a flaw, and the physically impossible singularity predictions claimed by modem Big Bang cosmologists are due to that flaw.

Huseyin Yilmaz studied the Einstein theory as part of his PhD research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He examined an approximate calculation that Einstein had made and realized that he could implement it exactly. This yielded an exact solution of Einstein's Relativity principles and resulted in the Yilmaz theory of gravity. Since the Yilmaz theory applies the principles of the Einstein theory, it is not a new theory; it a refinement of the Einstein theory.

Yilmaz published the first paper on his gravitational theory in 1958 in the prestigious Physical Review, and since then has published numerous scientific papers to extend his theory. The Yilmaz theory has eliminated the physically impossible singularity predictions that have been derived from the Einstein theory. Since the Yilmaz theory is a refinement of the Einstein theory, it has proven that the basic principles of the Einstein theory are inconsistent with singularities.

Big Bang cosmologists reject the Yilmaz theory, which refutes their singularity predictions. The Yilmaz theory is easy to apply, and so would reduce to obsolescence the elaborate computer techniques they have developed to solve the Einstein equations.>

The Yilmaz Cosmology Model

In 1948, the famous astrophysicist Fred Hoyle proposed the Steady State Universe theory, which postulates that our universe is infinitely old and that diffuse matter is continually created throughout the universe to compensate for the universe expansion. This cosmology theory received strong support until cosmic microwave radiation was discovered in 1965, which had been predicted by Gamow. This radiation was claimed to be the cooled relic of optical radiation emitted 300,000 years after the Big Bang. The Steady-State Universe theory could not explain this cosmic microwave radiation, and so it fell into disfavor.

The Yilmaz theory yields a cosmological model that is similar to the Steady State Universe theory but does not have its limitations. Appendix C shows that the Yilmaz cosmology model predicts cosmic microwave radiation much more accurately than the Big Bang theory.

Since modern Big Bang theories are based on physically impossible singularity postulates, they are not realistic explanations of cosmology. This leaves us with the Gamow Big Bang theory and the Yilmaz cosmology model as viable hypotheses for how our universe was created.

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